The manner in which male androphilia is publicly expressed varies cross-culturally. Establishing the existence of cross-cultural universals in male androphilia is one way of ascertaining whether common biological bases underlie this phenomenon despite its culturally distinct forms. Based on our work in Samoa, some of the cross-culturally consistent properties of male androphilia we have identified include:

1. • elevated recall of childhood gender-atypical behavior
   

2. • elevated recall of traits of childhood separation anxiety
   

3. • elevated interest in female-typical occupations in adulthood
   

4. • greater number of older biological brothers
   

5. • similar Odds Ratio for the influence of each successive older biological brother
   

   on the expression of male androphilia in younger born males

1. • greater prevalence of androphilic male relatives
   

2. • later birth order
   

3. • larger family size
   

4. • population prevalence of approximately 1.43-4.65%
   

5. • almost complete absence reproduction
   

This body of research provides strong evidence that although male androphilia is expressed differently across cultures (e.g., Western sex-gender congruent “gays” vs. Samoan transgendered fa’afafine) the different forms that male androphilia takes are cultural elaborations of the same underlying biological phenomenon.

Further Reading:

Semenyna, S., Patterson, L.J. & VanderLaan, D.P. & Vasey, P.L. Familial patterning and prevalence of male androphilia in Samoa.  Journal of Sex Research, 54: 1077-1084.

Semenyna, S., VanderLaan, D.P. & Vasey, P.L. Birth order and recalled gender nonconformity in Samoan  men and fa’afafine. Developmental Psychobiology, 59: 338-347.

Semenyna, S., Petterson, L.J., VanderLaan, D.P. & Vasey, P.L. (2017). A comparison of the reproductive output among the relatives of Samoan androphilic fa’afafine and gynephilic men. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 46: 87-93.

VanderLaan, D.P., Petterson, L.J., & Vasey, P.L. (2017). Elevated kin-directed altruism emerges in childhood and is linked to feminine gender expression in Samoan fa’afafine: A retrospective study.  Archives of Sexual Behavior, 46: 95-108.

Semenyna, S. & Vasey, P.L. (2016). Sex and male sexual orientation differences in occupational preferences in Samoa.  Human Nature, 27, 283-295.

Vasey, P.L., Parker, J.L, & VanderLaan, D.P. (2014). Comparative reproductive output of androphilic and gynephilic males in Samoa.  Archives of Sexual Behavior, 43: 363-367.

VanderLaan, D.P., Forrester, D.L., Petterson, L.J. & Vasey, P. L. (2013). The prevalence of fa’afafine relatives among Samoan men and fa’afafine. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 43: 353-359.

VanderLaan, D.P., Vokey, J.R. & Vasey, P.L. (2013) Is male androphilia familial in non-Western cultures? The case of a Samoan village. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 42: 361-370.

VanderLaan, D.P., Forrester, D.L., Petterson, L.J, & Vasey, P. L. (2012). Offspring production among the extended relatives of Samoan men and fa’afafine. PLoS ONE 7(4): e36088. doi: 101371/journal.pone.0036088

VanderLaan, D.P. & Vasey, P.L. (2011). Male sexual orientation in Independent Samoa: Evidence for fraternal birth order and maternal fecundity effects. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 40: 495-503.

VanderLaan, D. P., Gothreau, L., Bartlett, N.H., & Vasey, P.L. (2011). Recalled separation anxiety and gender atypicality in childhood: A study of Canadian heterosexual and homosexual men and women. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 40: 1233-1240.

Vasey, P. L., VanderLaan, D.P., Gothreau, L., &, Bartlett, N. H. (2011). Traits of separation anxiety in childhood: A comparison of Samoan men, women and fa’afafine. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 40: 511-517.

Vasey, P.L. & VanderLaan, D.P. (2007). Birth order and male androphilia in Samoan fa’afafine. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B, 274: 1437-1442.

Bartlett, N.B. & Vasey, P.L. (2006). A retrospective study of childhood gender-atypical behavior in Samoan fa’afafine. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 35: 559-566.