This report describes the nature and interrelationships among the factors that influence a faculty member’s level and type of use of information technologies to provide online instructional support for program and course delivery. The theoretical perspectives include the Competing Values Framework for organizational climate as well as the Social Cognitive Theory of Self-Efficacy and Bigg’s Cognitive Alignment framework , all with particular respect to the use of Internet technologies.

Contents

1. Introduction

2. Background

3. Theoretical Perspectives

3.1 Competing Values Framework
3.2 Social Cognitive Theory and Self-efficacy
3.3 Vygotsky's ZPD
3.4 Biggs’ Constructive Alignment

4. Method

4.1 Sampling
4.2 Instruments
4.3 Interviews

5. Results

6. Conclusions

7. References

Introduction

Does a fish know it is in water?

This is the primary report resulting from a Visiting Research Fellowship awarded to Dale Burnett in 2001 by Southern Cross University. The report has two major objectives:

• to further my own understanding of the complexities of faculty life surrounding the idea of online instruction, and
  
• to communicate this clearly to others so that this understanding is shared.

Communication is about a meeting of minds. It is a psychological idea. There are many ways this may occur. The use of language, primarily through speech, is the most common. In addition, we have always been aware that a conversation is richer than just the exchange of words. There are many non-verbal cues that provide potential additional information. Tone of voice, facial expressions and the use of gestures come easily to mind.

Communication is also the central tenent of both the visual and performing arts. In order for a work of art, or a performance, to be successful it must be received mindfully. While this highlights the importance of more than one mind, it is also possible to consider one’s own thoughts reflectively, which has led to a voluminous literature on meta-cognition and reflective thought.

Another obvious facet of communication is the medium. For most of human evolution this has involved face to face interaction. However in the last few thousand years we have added to this form of exchange by introducing various forms of written language which have a temporal permanence on surfaces such as papyrus, leather and today, paper. These surface mediums also permit the expression of the message to include various types of diagrams and imagery.

The last century has seen a rapid adoption of a new medium of communication, utilizing electromagnetic technology in the form of telephones, radios, television, film and now computers, the internet and the world wide web.

This fish is aware of the water. Instead of utilizing familiar mediums of expression, this report will be presented as a web site, and will attempt to communicate my understandings of how faculty members are using and thinking about the web as they engage in their professional responsibilities. It will incorporate diagrams, images and links as a regular feature of the report. As a web site, it will be online and available for viewing.

I would like to briefly elaborate on the first objective, understanding. What does it mean to understand something? This is a simple question that has occupied many of the best philosophers and psychologists, and has lately become of interest to computing scientists as well. For me, the following diagram captures the process:

We do the best that our capacities allow. We do the best we can to put together objects that are capable of being perceived by ourselves and others. Often these objects are words and images, but sounds, odors and tactile objects (e.g. sculpture, computers) are also used to convey messages that reflect our type of understanding. The process of creating these objects is very poorly understood. However one approach, called science, attempts to create explanations and then collect empirical data, using the best ideas available, to see if the data is consistent with the explanation (Deutsch, 1997). Parenthetically, the present distinction between quantitative (Black, 1999) and qualitative methods (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000) is nothing more than a binary oversimplification of a very complex and rich set of approaches.

Basically I would like to distinguish two types of knowing. Gilbert Ryle (1949) identified “knowing how” (performance) and “knowing that” (cognitive). I would like to add a second dimension, “structural knowledge” and “narrative knowledge”. Clearly this is also an example of a binary oversimplification, but one that may be useful in the present context.

Narrative knowledge is knowledge that each of us possesses, having lived. In a sense, every person is an island. At the same time, most of us, most of the time, enjoy interacting with other lived lives. This sharing, or telling of stories, is an important dimension of our socially constructed knowledge networks. Our society is a culture of such linked narratives. I like to represent this type of knowledge as follows:

What exactly do we mean by the term understanding? For me, it is simply the idea of many connections among ideas. Both of the above diagrams are replete with links. If one has many links or connections, then it seems fair to say that one has a good understanding of the idea. On the other hand, an item that has none, or very few links, is more like rote memorization, and does not exemplify understanding. This report will endeavor to make numerous explicit connections among the ideas that are discussed and presented.

This research undertaken as part of the Visiting Research Fellowship will attempt to provide both types of knowledge. Data will be collected by the use of structured questionnaires that have been constructed by reviewing the research literature on organizational climates and the psychological literature on social cognitive theory and self-efficacy. In addition there will be a series of individual case studies where selected faculty members will be interviewed on a regular basis throughout the semester.

Background

There is a burgeoning literature on topics related to the integration of information technology within organizations. Two disciplines that have shown a particularly strong interest in this topic are Management and Education. The topic is of obvious interest and importance because of the dramatic evolution of technology in the last fifty years, and more specifically with the unprecedented flurry of developments involving the internet, and most recently, the world wide web. Organizations and institutions around the world are actively engaged in examining and implementing various approaches that they hope will enable them to take advantage of these developments as they continue to emerge. This interest and activity is noticeable at all levels in both the commercial and the educational sectors. For example, schools from kindergarten to high school, as well as tertiary institutions such as colleges and universities are all devoting more of their attention and resources to internet related activities. Similar statements apply to a wide sector of the commercial and business activities around the globe, where e-business is a new and rapidly expanding phenomenon. Burnett (2001) has provided examples of using the web to compile learning notes.

The impact of these technological developments on institutions (Isaacs, 1999; McMurray, 2001) is putting increasing stress on almost all aspects of their operation. In many cases it seems to require a complete rethinking of an organization’s goals and functions. In some cases it may recommend a complete reorganization of an institution or company. In other cases the change may be less dramatic but still important. This appears to be the case within educational institutions, where the core purpose of the institution appears to remain relatively intact, but where there are new opportunities for how we may best provide a dynamic and relevant environment for our students.

Whether business or education, there is universal recognition that an important component for the successful adoption and integration of internet related technologies is the provision for various forms of education, in-service and training activities (eg. MacArthur, 1993) for those who are expected to be using the technology. For example, Laffey, Musser and Tupper (1998) provide a description of using the internet for posting journal entries while beginning teachers are engaged in their field experience. More generally, Wallace (1999) has provided a timely review on various psychological issues related to the use of the internet. At the same time there must be increasing attention placed to some of the difficulties of developing on-line instruction. Factors such as relaible technology, support for faculty, and the familiarity of the system among students are commonly mentioned ( Auter, P. J. & Hanna, M. S., 1996; Rogers, C. S. & Laws, P. 1996).

The proposed action research plan will focus specifically on the design and evaluation of such a support program for the mainstream faculty of Southern Cross University. Successful implementation of internet technologies is dependent upon factors at two distinct levels of attention. At the macro level, one must take into account both the overall institutional infrastructure and the general social culture, particularly as it relates to the technology. At the micro level, the emphasis is on the individual. This study will attend to the first level while focusing more strongly on the latter level. The primary purpose of the study will be to develop a better understanding of why individuals choose to use or to avoid computers in their instructional activities.

At the macro level, Quinn et al. (1996) have developed a “competing values framework” (cvf) for describing the organizational climate during times of rapid change. A brief survey will be conducted to help provide such a preliminary institutional profile. This information will then be used to help interpret the results obtained from interviewing and working with members of the faculty of Southern Cross University.

Within the psychological literature, self-efficacy (an individual’s belief in one’s capabilities to perform a task) (Bandura, 1997) has been widely shown to be related to performance. This is now being examined specifically to cases involving computer usage (Igbaria & Iivari, 1995; Compeau & Higgins, 1995a, 1995b). A related theoretical perspective is that of Attribution Theory, where the emphasis is on the effect of an individual’s perception or inference of a cause for a particular event. However there is little research on how these theoretical perspectives might be applied to the present situation of examining the utilization of internet technologies within a university setting. Compeau & Higgins (1995a) compared the effects of a behavior modeling program with that of a traditional lecture program for the training of computer skills, suggesting that self-efficacy was an important factor in both approaches while also providing support for the behavior modeling approach. Such mentoring is an important feature of the VRF program, since one facet of the exchange is to have a project leader who is both a faculty member and who has successfully utilized the internet to provide online instruction since the world wide web became available in 1995 (Burnett, 1999).

Theoretical Perspectives

In a word, this research program is multidisciplinary. It begins with the conceptual tripartite structure of the individual embedded with a social context that is constantly being influenced by technological developments. To consider less is to take too thin a slice of the situation to be of either theoretical or practical interest.

The following diagram provides an overview of the theoretical perspectives used in this program of research.

"Whatever one's entry point into the study of culture and development, a commitment to a unit of analysis that includes individuals and their sociocultural milieu immediately entails a series of major methodological problems to anyone who would seek to embody the resulting theoretical notions in empirical practice. To begin with, such an enterprise cannot proceed entirely on the basis of experimental methods, nor can it draw theoretically only on psychology. It must be multi method and interdisciplinary." (p. 2)

Competing Values Framework

The business literature consistently emphasizes the importance of the organizational culture in understanding a corporation's effectiveness. The ideas appear to apply equally well to any large organization, including that of a university. Quinn (1983, 1996) has developed a theoretical model for describing such a culture, called the Competing Values Framework (CVF), sometimes referred to as the competing values model (cvm). The model was originally derived empirically from multivariate analysis of response data. Howard (1998) has recently provided an important psychometric validation of this model. Dastmalchian (1999) has broadened the idea to provide a comparison of perceived emphasis with desired emphasis and although the model was originally designed to describe business organizations, Barath (1998) has extended the sphere of application to that of school jurisdictions.

Basically the CVF postulates a three-dimensional bipolar model for organizational culture. The three dimensions are labelled control/flexibility, internal-external focus and means-end emphasis. Each of these three dimensions is orthogonal to the others. This model is often represented as a diagram. The first two dimensions divide the organizational culture into four quadrants, each representing a set of core values. The third dimension then lies on top of this and represents the issue of an emphasis on process or product. This is sometimes represented in the following diagram by bisecting each quadrant into two pieces, one representing an emphasis on the means to achieve a desired outcome and the other representing an emphasis on the outcome itself. However this third dimension is often omitted from the analysis since it is considered of less importance than the first two dimensions.

Usually this model is then used as a framework for plotting the institutional profile, obtained by averaging the data from the individuals responding to the study. However in the present case, it was decided to treat each individual profile on its own, and examine how well that profile corresponds to other data obtained on internet efficacy via both questionnaires and follow-up interviews.

Social Cognitive Theory and Self-efficacy

Bandura has developed his Social Cognitive Theory (1986, 1991) over the last 40 years, more recently focusing on self-efficacy (1997). The essential assumption is that human behavior is highly self-regulated, this self-regulation affected by both social factors as well as by internal reflections. The overall process of self-regulation is conceptualized in terms of three phases: the self-monitoring of one's behavior, followed by a judgement about that behavior and concluding with an affective reaction. The analytic detail of the model is apparent from the following diagram:

Vygotsky's ZPD

The social context of this research is recognized and highlighted. Both the Competing Values Framework of Quinn and his colleagues and the Social Cognitive Theory of Bandura are heavily embedded within a social matrix. One of the earliest psychologists to emphasize this point was Russian, Lev Vygotsky. Vygotsky viewed education as the central sociocultural context within which to examine learning (Moll, 1990). His seminal work gave rise to the concept of a Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), which is defined as "the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with peers." (1978, p. 86). The definition appears highly relevant to the present research where we are interested in the distance in an understanding of web-based instruction between those who are relatively new to the idea and those that may be considered to be "expert".

Vygotsky's idea of peer collaboration provides a suggestion for reducing this cognitive distance. Haffner and Kress (1997) describe a similar approach in a tertiary institution in New York. In addition, one would expect a variety of informal collaborations among peers on a daily basis, It is worth noting that the psychological framework developed by Vygotsky, and later extended by Leontiev and Luria, assumes a lengthy period of learning. This is consistent with what is actually occurring at tertiary institutions around the globe as they attempt to incorporate internet technologies into their activities, and it is consistent with the plans to extend this research over a number of years.

Biggs’ Constructive Alignment

There is an ever present temptation when discussing online instruction to focus on the technology. Two factors that might be contributing to this are the general newness of the web and the exciting possibilities that it engenders in many people's minds. A third factor may be that the majority of information about the web is being generated by those most closely involved in its development. At the same time, there is a strong realization, even among the technical community that "content is important".

From an educational perspective there are two levels of "content". The first level is a concern with the information that one wishes to present, or to share, with others. The second level is pedagogic. In the world of e-commerce the analog would be the product and the issues of web design, although web design is also a consideration when considering pedagogy. Historically, pedagogy has been the central focus of educational programs for the preparation of teachers. This pedagogy has then emphasized both the structuring and sequencing of material, sometimes called "scope & sequence", and the various ways of presenting this information - usually involving suggestions for different teacher-centered activities, whether it be the use of a flip chart or the organization of a class into small groups. During the lat 20 years there has been an increasing emphasis on focussing on the learner and on making a distinction betwen surface and deep learning strategies (eg. Gibbs, 1992). John Biggs (1999a, 1999b) has synthesized this field and identified a principle that he calls constructive alignment. Basically he suggests that effective instruction should focus on what the learner does, emphasizing that the goals of the unit, the learner activities, and the assessment procedures, should all be congruent. Biggs recognizes the importance of the internet, however he maintains that the important issues are those of sound pedagogy, and that instructional uses of the web should still follow the same principles.

Biggs emphasis on pedagogy is critical to successful instruction, regardless of the medium. This emphasis is a factor for the present study in two major ways. The most obvious is that of noting when staff members mention this as an important factor in their consideration of alternative ways of providing the content of an instructional unit. They may feel that the web gives them new opportunities to play with pedagogical alternatives. However, a second possibility is that a genuine concern for pedagogical priorities may preclude an instructor from using the web, if they feel that such an approach would be inferior to some other form of (usually) face to face activity.

Method

The approach taken in this project was to create two survey instruments, based on the available research literature on computer self-efficacy, and administer this to the staff of Southern Cross University. The results of this data would then be collected and described. The data has two forms: some of it is numeric and lends itself to some form of numeric or graphical representation, other data consists of written responses to open-ended questions and lends itself to selective quotation within the report. The total data collected by this process will provide one perspective on the views of the staff about the internet and online instruction.

In addition, there will be a number of follow-up interviews to attempt to obtain a richer and more detailed perspective on the impact of the internet and online instruction on staff members. The audio tapes will be transcribed and reviewed and a summary of the results will form an important part of this report.

Based on the results from these two approaches, decisions will be made for a follow-up series of projects, to be carried out at both the University of Lethbridge and Southern Cross University. Extensions to other organizations where online instruction is an issue is also being considered.

Sampling

The original sample was to focus on those two schools (Education and Social and Work Development) that were involved in the development of the original proposal. Within these two schools all full-time academic staff were approached, however participation in the study remained voluntary. A total of 16 people were approached in Education and 12 were invited to participate from SaWD. Of these, a total of ?? filled in the survey forms. The study was not designed to compare schools, but to examine overall trends, so all data was either analyzed at an individual level or it was combined for subsequent analysis.

Notices were sent to the remaining 12 schools, informing them of the research project and inviting their participation. The principal researcher addressed 6 Schools in person (including both Education and SaWD), at one of their regular School meetings. Email messages were sent to the remaining 8 Schools. Of these, ?? ended up with members participating.

Instruments

The primary method of data collection used in this study consisted of the administration of two questionnaires to full-time faculty members at Southern Cross University. The first questionnaire was designed specifically for the situation at Southern Cross University. However many of the questions were originally used in a study by Eastin and LaRose (September, 2000) or in the study by Kelley et al. (1999). Many of the items were either altered or added to provide more specific information directly related to the use of the internet and the development of online instructional materials. The second questionnaire was obtained from Dastmalchian (August, 1999) and was used without modification. Copies of both instruments may be found in the Appendices. These questionnaires went through three versions, based on feedback from an Advisory Committee before being sent to the subjects for their feedback.

An online version of the questionnaires was developed and everyone was given the option of using either the hardcopy version or the online version. A total of ?? respondents chose the online version and ?? selected the hardcopy form. The online version may be viewed at:

http://home.uleth.ca/~dale.burnett/vrfonline/ .

Interviews

The questionnaires asked respondents whether they would be willing to be interviewed. Based on this information a total of ?? staff members were given the initial interview (?? from the School of Education, ?? from SaWD, and ?? from other Schools. Each interview was asked to complete and sign an Informed Consent form in accordance with Southern Cross University ethical guidelines. A general script was created and used to guide the interview. These interviews were transcribed and then analyzed.

Results

A brief chronology of the various activities was maintained during the activities of the first 6 months of 2001.

Responses to the online survey instruments was disappointingly low. Two reasons for this might be:

• the initial online emphasis.

Although the introduction to the project indicated that one could reply using either the online version or a hard copy version, only 3 people asked for a hard copy. Nonetheless, having the first exposure to the project in electronic form may have biased many staff members to not respond. A total of 45 questionnaires were sent to every academic staff member in each of two schools. This additional opportunity to respond resulted in only 2 more replies. Thus the fact that the questionnaire was online did not seem to be a factor in the low return rate.

• the time required to complete the questionnaires.

The questionnaires required about 30 - 45 minutes to complete. Many staff members may have been unwilling to spend this much time on an activity with little direct relevance to their other professional activities. This will be investigated further in a follow-up study.

However the data collected is still valuable and provides a number of important insights into how the internet and online instruction is impacting staff. The study was originally intended to focus on the two Schools of Education and Social and Workplace Development (SaWD). Within these two Schools, the return rate was 7 out of 16 (44%) and 9 out of 13 (69%).

One issue is that of displaying the results from the cvf. Dastmalchian used a radar graph approach with concentric circles to help the reader guage the distance from the center. However such an approach fails to provide any indication of the variability of the response set. The present approach will compare such charts with those produced by Excel (radar plot) as well as with box-and-whisker plots produced by SPSS. This will not be completed until I return to Lethbridge where I have access to the appropriate software. An alternative plot would be the average score for each of the four dimensions across the 6 scenarios. One advantage of this approach is that one can compute a standard deviation as well as the average, and thus obtain an estimate of the variability associated with each dimension. One can then obtain a confidence interval and this may be plotted as well.

The following radar graphs were produced using Excel. The numbers plotted are the sums of the percentage scores allotted to each of the four categories across the 6 situations portrayed in the cvf questionnaire. The first graph is for an individual who gave a high score for dimension 3 (Hierarchy culture). All of the remaining three dimensions had values under 150, which would be the score if all four dimensions were weighted equally.

Conclusions

References

Note: Links are provided for many of the references to a page that provides an annotated summary of the article. In the case of books, links are also provided where one may find further information. For articles that are available online, links to the article are provided.

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